In a 1962 article for Nigeria, a quarterly magazine that ran in different iterations from 1937 to 1990, Arc. Frank Mbanefo presented an analysis of the forms and living arrangements of traditional architecture from Onitsha. The analysis demonstrated Mbanefo’s interest in both researching and disseminating the properties and values of local Igbo architecture.¹ Despite being trained as an architect in the United Kingdom, Mbanefo’s architecture always reflected a careful integration of modernist ideals and references to local heritage. In this sense, it is important to note that Arc. Mbanefo’s pivotal role in documenting and archiving traditional Nigerian architecture is closely related to the research by Polish architect Zbigniew Dmochowski, commissioned by the Nigerian state.²

In 1960, the same year that the nation gained Independence and after ten years of studying in the UK and working in the offices of Fry, Drew and Partners, Ronald Ward and Partners, and John Burnet, Tait and Partners in London, Mbanefo was invited by Godwin & Hopwood to join their office in Lagos.

John Godwin and Gillian Hopwood had come to Lagos in 1954 after studying at the Architectural Association and they continued to work in Nigeria for the rest of their careers. Designing over 1,000 projects, their practice had an immense impact on the Nigerian built environment, developing an architecture that is considered to be site-specific and emblematic of the tropical modern style.

At the time of Independence, there was a construction boom in the country linked to the oil industry as of the 1950s and to the government’s commitment to seek a new architectural image for Nigerian cities. Architecture was not only used to develop a new identity for independent Nigeria but also as a tool for modernization. In the three years that Mbanefo worked at Godwin and Hopwood, they conceived a mix of residential, industrial, and educational projects. While Mbanefo was the first Nigerian architect hired by Godwin and Hopwood—and was encouraged by them to open his own practice, for which Gillian Hopwood and John Godwin acted as associates—the office soon became somewhat of a hub for young Nigerian architects and essential to the architectural community in Lagos. Other Nigerian architects who began their careers there include Olufemi Majekodunmi, who also worked there in the 1960s, and Ayo Onajide and Biola Fayemi who joined later.¹

Committed to building the profession in Nigeria, Mbanefo was an active member of various architectural bodies, locally and abroad. He was a founding member of the Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA)—of which he later became the national president—and a registered member of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), as well as many other associations.²

In 1964, Mbanefo first established his own practice in Port-Harcourt, later reopening in Enugu in 1972, after the Nigerian Civil War (Biafra War, 1967-70).¹ A year later, the Nigerian Government proposed establishing museums in four capitals—Sokoto, Maiduguri, Ibadan, and Enugu—to promote unity and establish reconciliation among the heterogeneous cultural groups across the country. While the museums in Sokoto and Maiduguri never went ahead, the National Museum in Ibadan, designed by Mbanefo, was completed in 1992.² Today, it is a prominent institution and plays a vital role in promoting cultural awareness, education, and preservation for the region through showcasing the country’s rich cultural heritage. Similarly to the government’s development of architecture around the time of Independence, projects such as these museums were again tools for unification. Both the function of the museum and the style of the architecture were important.

Mbanefo’s design also reflects the intention of the museum as a means to promote local heritage, and the cultural sensitivity exhibited in the design includes the incorporation of traditional elements that reflect the region’s history.

The project is articulated by a series of interconnected octagonal forms, each with an open courtyard in the centre, that are potentially inspired by traditional Yoruba domestic architecture. The Yoruba courtyard house type has an inward orientation focused on a central open atrium that allows the rain to fall.¹

Use of concrete for most of the building’s structure, together with this traditional courtyard form, demonstrates the coming together of tradition and modernism in Mbanefo’s design. With the exponential development of the concrete industry post-Independence, the use of concrete became a symbol of modernity. The design also incorporates brise-soleil on the exterior pathway of the building, which helps to control light and facilitates cross ventilation. The rhythmic organization of façades by means of brise-soleil was increasingly being used in tropical architecture, such as in the nearby Kenneth Dike Library at the University College of Ibadan (1947-1960) by Fry, Drew and Partners. Mbanefo, who had worked at Fry, Drew and Partners earlier in his career, while in London, likely worked on this project in its final years of construction.² Like other Nigerian architects at the time, Mbanefo further developed elements of tropical architecture by incorporating local techniques and forms—bringing cultural heritage together with modern design. This approach not only respects traditional building practices but also enhances the architectural narrative of the region.

In the heart of Onitsha, stands a mausoleum to a crucial figure in Nigeria’s independence and the country’s first president, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe.¹ While he was born in Zungeru in the north, Azikiwe grew up in Onitsha, like Mbanefo. The drawings of the mausoleum reveal a deliberate balance of both modern and traditional Igbo influences, as well as nods to contextual and climactic factors. This balance is emblematic of much of Mbanefo’s work.

Looking at the symmetrical plan, a series of circles are encased by a square that is anchored by a diagonal element in each corner. Four entrances, one on each side of the square, lead to a screen of arrayed concrete blades. The ample number of windows, together with the layered façade of concrete blades control the flow of natural air within the mausoleum. Once inside, eight evenly spaced pillars, organized in a circle, form another threshold, leading to stairs that descend to the central statue and grave. The bold radial form, which is reflective of Igbo symbolism and cosmology, is intended to invite reflection and introspection in memory of Azikiwe.

Comparatively, the section drawing reveals both the monumentality of the design and formally, a shift away from the style of the plan. Four curved roof panels come together to form a tall tower, which illuminates at its crown, designed to bring attention to its presence. Not only does this sculptural form create a dramatic interior, but in its surrounding context, the building’s significance can be felt. Further, the tall tower helps with natural cooling.

First designed in 1996, but not completed until 2015, this was one of Mbanefo’s final projects in a career that spanned over four decades. The design of the mausoleum tells the story of a life dedicated to the service of others, but it is more than a tribute to a remarkable leader; it is a celebration of Nigerian history.

Mbanefo designed structures that not only reflect the nation’s aspirations but also honour its rich cultural heritage. With a deep understanding of the local context, Mbanefo’s designs stand as testaments to Nigeria’s emergence as a modern nation. Through his work, Mbanefo told the story of a nation in transition, seeking to assert its identity while embracing new possibilities.

Nevertheless, Mbanefo’s work remains understudied. His career challenges us to consider postcolonial agency, how African architects negotiated global modernism, and the potential of architecture as a tool in the face of ecological crisis—pertinent questions for architectural practice today. Working at a time when newly independent African nations were redefining their identities, Mbanefo did not merely imitate colonial or Western architectural models, but carved out a space to project African aspirations, values, and spatial logic into the built form. Through his architectural language and practice, Mbanefo contributed to a broader narrative of self-representation and cultural sovereignty. At the same time, Mbanefo’s work illustrates how African architects of his generation negotiated the currents of global modernism. Educated within systems that often privileged European paradigms, and practicing within societies in flux, he bridged modernist aesthetics and functionalism with local realities.

In today’s context—marked by climate emergency, rapid urban expansion, and the continued marginalization of local knowledge in global design discourse, Frank Mbanefo’s career invites reflection on how architecture can be reimagined as a tool for ecological balance, cultural continuity, and social justice. His work demands that we reconsider architectural education and practice not as neutral or purely aesthetic pursuits, but as instruments of transformation grounded in historical, cultural, and environmental awareness. This text and the Find and Tell Elsewhere program are an active effort to make some material from his archive more accessible and encourage further research on his work.